Category Archives: Mammals

Our Far South: Land at last!

24 February 2012 – 8.11am

After 6 days at sea, we finally sighted land, Franklin Island, with it’s glacial snow cap looked like Eden after the roller coaster ride of the Ross Sea.

Franklin Island. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

Franklin Island is home to a large colony of Adelie penguins and is the hangout for a few Weddell seals. Weddell seals generally live by the fixed ice where males will vociferously defend their breathing hole against other males. Not here though, here they were hauled out on the beach and adjacent snow clad rise.

Weddell seals are quite a deep diving seal, with known dive depths in access of 700m. This species was once hunted around Ross Island.

Weddell seal. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

Weddell seals were harvested in small numbers and used to feed sled dogs on the Antarctic stations. But they are considered to have recovered to pre-exploitation numbers.

Moulting Adelie penguin. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

The Adelie penguins that were present were moulting, and much like the king and royal penguins on Macquarrie Island were largely unphased by our presence. They were however somewhat wary of the Antarctic skuas. A number of penguin carcasses had been meticulously pecked over and reduced to clean bones by the skuas.

We are now at about 76 degrees south and heading further south towards McMurdo sound. Sightings of some 50-60 Killer whales in the region has a number of the crew pretty excited, me among them!

By antonvanhelden | Also posted in Biodiversity, Birds, Field trips, Penguins | Tagged , , , | Comments (0)

Our Far South: Ross Sea adventure playground for Petrel heads.

22 February 2012 – 7.49am
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Tabular berg amidst pack ice. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

As we entered the Ross Sea we lef the band of large ice bergs behind us, and entered a fairly calm Ross sea. I kept a morning vigil on the bridge looking for whales. it was not until mid afternoon that we saw our first, a small and rapid antarctic Minke whale Balaenoptera bonarensis. These animals are still hunted by the Japanese as part of their “research” programme. They are also hunted by Killer whales! Later in the day we caught asight of a small pod of Type A killer whales. The different types of antarctic Killer whales have been ascribed the letters A, B and C. they are not only distinguishable by their looks but also by their feeding strategies.

Snow Petrel. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa

Type A specialise in the hunting of Antarctic Minke whales, Type B seals on Pack ice, and type C that are the most southerly form that feed primarily on fish near the continental ice edge.

So many whales were taken out of this region, it is scary to think that so few species have made any kind of recovery. In a matter of a few decades the population of Blue whales had been reduced from about 250,000 animals to probably less than a hundred, they are now estimated to number about 2000.
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Antarctic petrel and snow petrel. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

The boat has had a few constant companions since coming into the Ross Sea, which by the way is an enormous body of water. The Antarctic Petrel with their brown and white markings have been flocking around the boat, and along with the white snow petrels have been feeding in the disturbed waters of our wake.

We are heading down to Cape Crozier where we will rendez-vous with a Sanfords fishing vessel, as one of their crew is joining the Our Far South trip.

We still have a few hundred Nautical miles to run. Currently we are just over 73 degrees south.

By antonvanhelden | Also posted in Biodiversity, Birds, Field trips, Whales | Tagged , , , | Comments (3)

Our Far South: Roaring Forties, furious fifties and Screaming sixties…

20 February 2012 – 3.14pm

Heading south from Macquarie Island we have had some relatively calm seas, pretty remarkable for this part of the world.

Furious fifties. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa

Leaving the Roaring Forties which gave us a pretty slow rolling sea the fifties gave us a small taste of what it had to offer with some mild five-metre seas. Passing past 60 degrees south was significant as that is the line of latitude that marks the start of the Antarctic Treaty, the international piece of legislation that New Zealand is a signatory to.

The treaty was established in 1959 to dedicate Antarctica to peace and science.

What passing into the sixties has also provided us with our first icebergs. I guess I had imagined that the first ones we would see would be small….I could not have been more wrong. The first ones I saw were enormous, like large land masses that completely dwarfed the ship.

Iceberg. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

I was awoken this morning by the call of “Whale”, I did not get to see this animal but a photo revealed the dorsal fin of a Sei whale, a rorqual that can get up to 20m in length. This species has very fine baleen, and is thought to feed on very small crustaceans called copepods, but probably also the smaller krill species.

As we head now for the Antarctic circle at 66.33 degrees south ( ETA 5.20pm), the line where on the longest day the sun does not set. We have been keeping a vigil on the bridge looking our for whales and icebergs. We have so far seen about six humpbacks, none at terribly close range, but still visible with the naked eye and confirmed by looking at them with binoculars and some rather spectacular camera shots.

Tabular iceberg probably broken off from the Ross Ice Shelf. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

Seeing humpbacks down here is pleasing, as they were once hunted so fiercely as to nearly wipe them out. In the 1961-62 whaling season the Russian whaling fleet took nearly 28000 humpbacks out of the population south of New Zealand, which spelled the end to the whaling industry in New Zealand.

This species seems to be recovering well of the East coast of Australia, sadly very few are still passing by New Zealand, let’s hope that improves. The Japanese still have them on their list of species to take in their “scientific whaling” programme, which is a concern.

A single humpback whale represents US$1,000,000 to the whale watching industry in Tonga over it’s lifetime.

Iceberg. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa

This afternoon we have been passing more and more icebergs, each shape as extraordinary as the next. From small little floaters that they call “growlers”, which get their name from the sound they make if the collide with the ship, to great monuments like this one that looks like the Arche Du Triomphe.

Ok I am heading back to the bridge to keep looking out for whales!

By antonvanhelden | Also posted in Biodiversity, Birds, Field trips, Penguins, Whales | Tagged , , , | Comments (3)

Our Far South: What it boils down to

17 February 2012 – 9.09am

King penguins surrounding the zodiac. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

We arrived at Macquarie Island - the sheltered waters in the lee of the island provided a welcome relief from the open ocean we had crossed between here and the Auckland Islands.

The cool subantarctic summer did not detract from the spectacular wildlife – elephant seals and penguins everywhere! Until 1920 the elephant seals and penguins of Macquarie Island were boiled down for oil. A single Royal penguin would produce about 600ml or one pint of oil.

The Australian antartic explorer Mawson petitioned for Macquarie Island to be classed as a wild life sanctuary. A recent publication reported in New Scientist shows that the population has recovered surprisingly well over the last 80 years, and now numbers are back to half a million after dropping to around 4,000; and genetic  diversity is close to pre-slaughter levels – vital to long-term survival.

Gentoo penguin, Macquarie Island. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

Four species of penguin now breed on the island as do 2 species of fur seal and of course the giant elephant seals.

Although we did not get a chance to see any Antarctic or sub-Antarctic fur seals, we did get a chance to see more king penguins, swimming and on shore and the much smaller Gentoo and Rock-Hopper penguins that were close in around the Australian base at the northern end of the island.

The base is used forvarious scientific experiments and monitoring and is also the base for the hunters who are working to finally eradicate all the introduced rabbits.

The have not seen any sign of rabbits now for two months, but this monitoring will go on for probably another 2 years.

Yearling elephant seal. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

Although all of this years Elephant seal pups have already left to go to sea, there are a few yearlings from the previous year, tiny compared to the enormous males that are still hanging out in their wallows. The few females scattered amongst them are dwarfed by the males as they are only about a quarter of their size.

The project of pest eradication on the island is an amazing success story, as they have now succesfully removed all the mice, rats, cats and hopefully now all of the rabbits.

The areas that were fenced off to keep rabbits out are full of the tussock plants that would have once covered the island.

Elephant seals and regenerating tussock. Victor Anderlini.

We are now heading out to sea and leaving the lee of the islands for a four day journey down to Antartica itself.

This island shows how fragile this ecosystem is but also that with considerable effort what can be done to restore them.

Aurora australis - the Southern Lights. Photo WWF.

By antonvanhelden | Also posted in Biodiversity, Birds, Field trips, Penguins, Whales | Tagged , , , , , | Comments (0)

Our Far South: from shipwrecks to high seas

16 February 2012 – 8.06am

Becalmed in Carnley Harbour. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa

I awoke to find that the boat had moved over night to the bottom end of the Auckland Islands, into Carnley harbour, with Adams island to our south. Adams island is home to Gibson’s wandering albatross – DNA research is currently being carried out to determine if Gibson’s Albatross is distinct from other wandering albatross species.

We had incredibly calm weather and took a zodiac ride up one of the arms of the misty harbour to visit what was left of the wreck of the Grafton. One of the great tales of survival of early sailing in the our sub-Antarctic seas. The five men aboard set about extending one of their life dingies, they had to even make their own nails! they made a sturdy little craft to take three of them back to New Zealand in search of help for the two men left behind.

Wreck of the Grafton. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

Now what is left of the Grafton is used primarily as a sealion hangout.

Our investigations on the rocky shore revealed something that surprised me, a spider living in the intertidal zone! I hope that when I get back to Te Papa that my photo will be enough to help Phil Sirvid identify it.

We spent the morning looking at areas within Carnley Harbour, including an area where rata trees were once cut down by the crew of a German merchant vessel at the start of World War Two. They used the wood as fuel to enable their vessel to reach Chile.

Adams Island in fog, Carnley Harbour. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa

“Figure of Eight” Island is home to the most southern breeding site for NZ sealions in the Auckland group. Unlike sealions at Sandy Bay on Enderby Island these sealions breed  in the bush on this small flat islet.

It has been a calm sailing so far, and so there has been a chance to give lectures and have debates. The primary one today being about the NZ sealion and their interactions with the commercial fishery for arrow squid. Lots of things may be influencing the decline of the this sealion population, however it seems clear that fisheries are unlikely to be completely blameless in this. Female NZ sealions, have to work very hard to get the food they need to be able to keep themselves in good condition and to pass that on to their dependent pups. The squid fishery coincides with the exact time when female sealions are foraging hardest to meet the demands of supplying milk to their pups. NZ sealion is the only sealion in the world where the survival of females is less than that of males: it is mostly female sealions that historicaly have been caught as by-catch in the squid fishery. Which surely can not help when a population like this is affected by other influences like disease outbreaks and even normal levels of predation.

Sealion Exclusion Devices (SLEDs) have been put in the trawl nets of the fishery. There is much debate about the chances of a sealion surviving being thrown out of a net at 200m depth. the fishing industry claims that they are now not catching any sealions, but perhaps these SLEDs are just removing the evidence of mortality from their catch.

I have been keeping a look out for Whales…you can only see them if you look!

Heading south. Image WWF.

After lunch we set sail out in to the wilds of the Southern Ocean on our way further south to Macquarie Island. I am greatly looking forward to seeing the elephant seals at Macquarie.

By antonvanhelden | Also posted in Birds, Bugs, insects and spiders, Field trips, History, Plants, Whales | Tagged , , , , , | Comments (0)

Our far South: Return to Enderby

14 February 2012 – 12.13pm
 
 
 
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Sandy Bay, Enderby Is 1995. Photo Anton van Helden, Copyright Te Papa

I visited Enderby in 1995 as part of the DOC Sealion project. The project is still going today. Sadly the most noticeable thing on my return was the much smaller numbers of sealions and pups.

It is very saddening to hear from Louise Chilvers (DOC’s sealion biologist) that the population has decreased by 50% in the last 12 years alone. In part because of disease epidemics, but probably also because of other factors such as fishing and climate change which may be having an impact on these remarkable animals.

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Sea lion pup suckling. Photo Anton van helden. Copyright Te Papa.

New Zealand sealions Phocarctos hookeri, are the deepest diving eared seals in the world. They have been recorded to dive to depths in excess of 700m. They are sadly, now the rarest sealion in the world, with a population of only about 10,000 animals.

 

The island vegetation has recovered however. After the removal of cattle, rabbits and all other mammalian pest species the undergrowth in the southern Rata forests and the tussock fields that ring the island have bounced back vigourously.

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Southern Royal albatross, Auckland Islands. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

The yellow-eyed penguins seem to be doing well, which is heartening.

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Yelloweyed penguin. Photo Anton van Helden. Copyright Te Papa.

One Southern Right whale was seen, a reminder that in the winter months they come into Port Ross in the Auckland Islands to calve. At nearly 18m these animals feed on tiny swarming crustaceans called Copepods that they sieve through the water with their long baleen.

Right whale, Port Ross, Auckland islands. Image WWF.

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Louise Chilvers and Anton van Helden, Enderby Island.

The Te Papa Fish team will be coming down here in the next week or so to investigate the animals that live deep down in the waters around the island.

By antonvanhelden | Also posted in Birds, Field trips, Penguins, Uncategorized, Whales | Tagged , , , , , | Comments (0)

No evidence that stoats have impacted on Kapiti Island’s birds

14 February 2012 – 10.06am

Kapiti Island is one of New Zealand’s premier bird sanctuaries. It is home to nationally important populations of little spotted kiwi, kaka, North Island saddleback, stitchbird and North Island robin, as well as other threatened bird species. The island was considered to be free of all introduced mammal pests after rats were eradicated in 1996. However, a stoat was seen there in late 2010, and intensive trapping effort by the Department of Conservation (DOC) resulted in three stoats being killed during 2011. Inspection and analysis of these animals indicate that a pregnant female stoat probably reached the island during 2009, and gave birth towards the end of that year. Trapping and survey efforts continue, and it is unknown whether any stoats are still present.

The skeleton of the male stoat trapped on Kapiti Island in February 2011 is held by Te Papa (LM 2603). Photo: Colin Miskelly, Te Papa

Saddlebacks are extremely vulnerable to stoat predation as the birds not only nest in tree holes, but roost in holes every night. Birds that roost or nest in holes have little hope of escape when a predator comes in through the only exit. Saddlebacks are also noisy and conspicuous, and so were expected to be the first bird species to noticeably decline if stoats started to have an impact on bird populations on Kapiti Island. Stoats rapidly extirpated saddlebacks from Maud Island and Motukawanui Island when they invaded in 1982 and c1985 respectively.

North Island saddleback displaying. Photo: Rob Cross

Members of the Ornithological Society of New Zealand (OSNZ) completed 3050 ‘five-minute bird counts’ on Kapiti Island between April 2009 and January 2012. Counts were completed every 3 months during a period completely overlapping with when stoats were believed to be present. Analyses of these counts revealed no reduction in saddleback range or numbers on the island over these 3 years, supporting DOC’s survey results indicating that very few if any stoats remain on the island.

Timeline for stoat arrival, detection and the trapping of three individuals on Kapiti Island. The curve shows saddleback count results over the same period (average number of birds counted per 5 minutes), with no apparent reduction during the time that stoats were known to be present. Image: Colin Miskelly, Te Papa

It is great news that saddlebacks continue to thrive on Kapiti Island. This can be attributed to the huge effort that DOC staff have made to eradicate the invading stoats.

OSNZ established 61 permanent count stations on Kapiti Island in the 1970s, and has undertaken 3-year blocks of counts approximately once a decade ever since. The OSNZ counts were organised by Colin Miskelly (Te Papa’s Curator Terrestrial Vertebrates). Transport and food costs were met by DOC as part of ongoing monitoring of the ecological health of Kapiti Island.

By Colin Miskelly | Also posted in Biodiversity, Birds, Field trips | Tagged , , | Comments (1)

Our Far South: The Snares

13 February 2012 – 9.04am

After leaving the port of Bluff, we took our sunset cruise down past Stewart Island on towards the Snares, our first port of call in Our Far South.

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Snares Island. Photo Antonvan Helden, copyright Te Papa.

The first marine mammal spotting of the trip was a small pod of Southern right whale dolphins, these spectacularly sleek animals have no dorsal fin and gave the imprssion of being giant penguins porpoising along. They are just one of the many species of marine mammal which inhabit our rich southern waters.

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Snares crested penguins. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

Into the zodiacs we went to explore the rugged coastline of these islands.  Devoid of any introduced predators they are remarkable for the abundance of bird, from the tiny black tomtits and fern birds to the soaring Buller’s Mollymawks. The islands with their tree daisy and leatherwood shrub coverings are home to a massive number of Sooty Shear waters whose burrows festoon the island. Groups of Snares crested penguins could be seen gathered along the rocky coastal cliffs, while the exposed coastline is covered with massive clumps of bull kelp.

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Sea lion, Snares Is. Photo Anton van Helden, copyright Te Papa.

The islands are also home to New Zealand Fur seals, hunted in vast numbers in the late 1790′s to about 1830 when it was no longer economic for sealers to hunt them.

A few sub adult male New Zealand Sealions also call it home and swam around with inquistive looks.

Next target the Auckland Islands, we should reach there in the early hours of Sunday morning. I am looking forward to this as I spent the summer of 1995 there as part of the Department of Conservation Sealion Recovery project.

By antonvanhelden | Also posted in Birds, Field trips, Penguins, Uncategorized, Whales | Tagged , , , | Comments (1)

Take that you dirty rat! – the unglamorous side of museum work

20 October 2011 – 1.22pm

The position of Curator Terrestrial Vertebrates was a new one for Te Papa in mid 2010. My predecessor had been the Curator of Birds, and the expanded role meant that for the first time a curator would be responsible for land mammals, as well as for birds, reptiles and frogs. It didn’t take long to discover the logic behind the new job description…

Waiting in a corner of the spirit collection area were two fork-lift pallet loads of long-neglected rodent specimens. Most had been collected by members of the former Ecology Division DSIR and New Zealand Wildlife Service. They had been donated to the National Museum during the massive government service restructurings of the late 1980s that resulted in the creation of successor agencies Landcare Research and the Department of Conservation.

Kiore caught in snap trap, Taranga (Hen Island). Photo: Colin Miskelly, Te Papa

Despite the turmoil of restructuring and job losses, both the Department of Conservation and Landcare Research embarked on two decades of developing huge advances in pest eradication techniques. Most notable were developments in the application and use of anticoagulant baits to eradicate four species of introduced rodents from ever larger islands. As an unexpected consequence, those two unloved and nearly forgotten pallet loads of festering and desiccating specimens contained many examples of rodent populations that are now extinct.

A kiore specimen being prepared for preservation in the field, Taranga (Hen Island), December 2010. This population has since been eradicated by the Department of Conservation. Photo: Colin Miskelly, Te Papa

Between 1987 and 2007, kiore (Pacific rats), Norway rats, ship rats and house mice were eradicated from over 90 islands around New Zealand, ranging in size up to 11,300 hectare Campbell Island. Examples of rats and mice from many of these islands were in jars on those two pallets, but until they were catalogued and entered into Te Papa’s electronic database, there was no easy way to determine which of the extirpated rodent populations were represented in the national collection.

Tom Schultz checking collection details on a rat specimen in the Te Papa spirit collection. Photo: Colin Miskelly, Te Papa

With the help of Natural Environment collection technician Tom Schultz over the last 4 months, all the samples have been sorted, and decisions made on which to keep as spirit specimens versus prepared as skeletons versus sent to the landfill. All 664 spirit specimens that we chose to keep have been labelled, placed in jars of ethanol in the spirit collection, and all their data entered in the EMu electronic database.

Rat specimens in the Te Papa spirit collection. Photo: Colin Miskelly, Te Papa

We now know that among the 323 kiore, 77 Norway rat, 52 ship rat and 212 house mouse spirit specimens are examples of 43 populations that have been eradicated for conservation reasons. Extirpated populations represented include:

Kiore (Pacific rat) Rattus exulans: Kermadec Is (Raoul & Macauley), Moturua I. (Bay of Islands), Lady Alice I. (Chicken Is), Taranga (Hen I. – eradication yet to be confirmed), Mokohinau Is (Burgess I., Trig I., Stacks C, D & F), Tiritiri Matangi I., Little Barrier I., Cuvier I., Mercury Is (Red Mercury, Stanley, Double & Korapuki Is), Ohena I., Middle Chain I. (Aldermen Is), Mayor I. (Tuhua), Rurima Rocks, Kapiti I., Long I. & Motuara I. (Queen Charlotte Sound), Centre Island (Foveaux Strait), Codfish I. (Whenua Hou), and Putauhinu I.

Norway rat Rattus norvegicus: Raoul I., Bay of Islands (Motukiekie, Moturua, Okahu, Urupukapuka & Waewaetorea Is), Motutapu I., Whale I. (Moutohora), Breaksea I. (Fiordland), and Campbell I.

Ship rat Rattus rattus: Rangitoto I., Big South Cape I. (Taukihepa), and Macquarie I. (eradication yet to be confirmed for latter).

House mouse Mus musculus: Allports I. (Queen Charlotte Sound), Enderby I. (Auckland Is), and Macquarie I. (eradication yet to be confirmed for latter).

By Colin Miskelly | Also posted in Biodiversity | Tagged , , , | Comments (2)

Re-articulation of Phar Lap’s skeleton – bold decisions and expert advice

19 October 2011 – 2.14pm

Phar Lap’s skeleton is one of Te Papa’s best known exhibits. Perhaps the most famous horse ever to emerge from Australasia, the national identity of Phar Lap is as intensely debated each side of the Tasman as is who invented the pavlova.

Foaled at Seadown, near Timaru, in 1926, Phar Lap was bought by the Sydney-based American businessman David J. Davis in 1928, and was trained and raced in Australia. He dominated the Australian racing scene during the Great Depression, providing the one sure bet during desperate economic times.

Dr Alex Davies checks the positioning of Phar Lap’s thoracic vertebrae. Photo: Kate Whitley, Te Papa

In the four years of his racing career, Phar Lap won 37 of 51 races he entered, including the Melbourne Cup in 1930. He improved with age, including winning 14 races in a row in 1930-31, and winning 32 of his last 35 starts. Davis had him shipped to North America (against the wishes of co-owner Harry Telford), where he won his only race there – the Agua Caliente Handicap – in race record time. He died in mysterious circumstances soon after the race, on 5 April 1932.

Following his death, Phar Lap’s enormous heart was donated to the Institute of Anatomy in Canberra (it is now in the National Museum of Australia, Canberra), the mounted hide is in the Melbourne Museum, and the skeleton was first displayed in the Dominion Museum (now Te Papa) in 1938.

Robert Clendon and Dr Alex Davies discuss the positioning of Phar Lap’s left forelimb and scapula. Photo: Kate Whitley, Te Papa

The skeleton was loaned to the Melbourne Museum in September 2010 as part of the celebrations for the 150th running of the Melbourne Cup. Displayed alongside the magnificently taxidermied hide for the first time, it was clear that the skeleton was overdue for a makeover. Te Papa staff had long debated whether it was more important to maintain the 1938 articulation as an historic exhibit, or whether to re-articulate the skeleton in an anatomically more correct posture. The latter argument has finally been accepted!

The 1938 articulation was done by Dominion Museum taxidermist Charles Lindsay and osteologist E.H. Gibson of the Otago Medical School. Given that neither man was an expert in equine anatomy, they did a remarkable job. But there are a series of minor errors that collectively mean that the skeleton does not quite match the proud physique of Phar Lap in his prime. This was exacerbated by metal fatigue of the rod holding up the neck and skull, resulting in the skull drooping from its original position.

A 1938 newspaper clipping showing the original Phar Lap articulation. E.H. Gibson on left, Charles Lindsay on right. Image: Te Papa

Phar Lap’s skeleton has been returned to Te Papa, and a team is working to have the skeleton re-articulated and back on display early in 2012. A crucial member of the team is retired associate professor of veterinary anatomy Dr Alex Davies. Dr Davies has had a long interest in Phar Lap, and is relishing the opportunity to work alongside Te Papa staff in making sure that the re-articulation is as accurate as possible.

One of the key decisions in the re-articulation process is to present the skeleton against a life-sized image of the Phar Lap mount from Melbourne Museum. We intend to match the posture of the skeleton closely to that of the skin. The physical work is being undertaken by object conservation staff Robert Clendon and Hayden Prujean, with expert advice from Dr Davies.

How to mount a horse? Hayden Prujean and Alex Davies discuss the re-articulation of Phar Lap’s skeleton. Photo: Kate Whitley, Te Papa

Some of the changes that have already been made include increasing the length and curvature of the spine, and lowering it at the front to increase the projection of the shoulder blades above the spine. More subtle adjustments include improving the position of the minor limb elements, including the patella (knee-cap) and sesamoid bones.

By Colin Miskelly | Also posted in Collections Online, Conservation, Exhibitions, History | Tagged , , , | Comments (1)
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